Chronology1861- The Tongzhi emperor comes to the throne
1861- Tsungli Zamen created 1864- Fall of Nanjing to Qing forces 1875- The Tongzhi emperor dies |
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background to the Tongzhi Restoration
Chinese historiographical tradition
The 'restoration' was an old idea where a declining dynasty (in this case the Qing) had began to return to full power by defeating rebels rather than collapse.
A new emperor
The very youthful Tongzhi emperor's ascension to the throne was seen as a positive step for China and the Qing dynasty, even though China was ruled by the young emperor's regents the empress dowager (his mother) and Prince Gong.
Final defeat of the Taiping
The fall of the Taiping capital Nanjing in July 1864 meant that the threat from the Taiping was finally over. It is important to realize that far from being a rebellion, the conflict between the Taiping and the Qing was in fact a civil war fought on a massive scale which far eclipsed in size its contemporary conflict, the American Civil War.
Survival of the imperial system
While it is true that some powers were devolved to the regional governors due to the conflict, the fact remains that despite all the pressures, the Qing imperial system had survived the war with the Taiping. A good example of this is that the yearly imperial exams to join the Qing civil service were not disrupted once (except in rebel controlled areas and even these caught up on missed exams once Qing troops took back control.
Dealing with the Western powers
Western help and advice had played a key role in the Qing victory over the Taiping, eg: 'Chinese' Gordon and the Ever Victorious Army, so despite the humiliation China had suffered in the Opium Wars, there were strong grounds for optimism that relations with the european empires had turned a corner by 1861.
The Tsungli Zamen
The Tsungli Zamen was effectively China's first foreign affairs ministry when it was created in 1861. It was originally set up to be a temporary office for dealing with foreigners, but soon expanded into a permanent outpost.
Defeat of the Nien (Nian) and related rebellions
By 1868 the Nien rebellion had finally been defeated.
The 'restoration' was an old idea where a declining dynasty (in this case the Qing) had began to return to full power by defeating rebels rather than collapse.
A new emperor
The very youthful Tongzhi emperor's ascension to the throne was seen as a positive step for China and the Qing dynasty, even though China was ruled by the young emperor's regents the empress dowager (his mother) and Prince Gong.
Final defeat of the Taiping
The fall of the Taiping capital Nanjing in July 1864 meant that the threat from the Taiping was finally over. It is important to realize that far from being a rebellion, the conflict between the Taiping and the Qing was in fact a civil war fought on a massive scale which far eclipsed in size its contemporary conflict, the American Civil War.
Survival of the imperial system
While it is true that some powers were devolved to the regional governors due to the conflict, the fact remains that despite all the pressures, the Qing imperial system had survived the war with the Taiping. A good example of this is that the yearly imperial exams to join the Qing civil service were not disrupted once (except in rebel controlled areas and even these caught up on missed exams once Qing troops took back control.
Dealing with the Western powers
Western help and advice had played a key role in the Qing victory over the Taiping, eg: 'Chinese' Gordon and the Ever Victorious Army, so despite the humiliation China had suffered in the Opium Wars, there were strong grounds for optimism that relations with the european empires had turned a corner by 1861.
The Tsungli Zamen
The Tsungli Zamen was effectively China's first foreign affairs ministry when it was created in 1861. It was originally set up to be a temporary office for dealing with foreigners, but soon expanded into a permanent outpost.
Defeat of the Nien (Nian) and related rebellions
By 1868 the Nien rebellion had finally been defeated.
Historiographical Issues and arguments
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Source A: "Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s. This was the T'ung-chih Restoration." by Historian Mary Wright Source B: "That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration." By Historian John Fairbank |